Life and Work of Jenny Holzer, Artist of Text-Based Truisms

Life and Work of Jenny Holzer, Artist of Text-Based Truisms Jenny Holzer is an American artist and political activist. Best known for her series of Truisms, text-based art exhibited in public spaces in the form of plainly worded statements written in bold, her work ranges in content from the neutral to the political. As both an exhibitor in public and private spaces, Holzer is keenly aware of the effects of her work on both the intentional and the casual passerby. She is inspired by reading, world events, and the contexts of her own life, though she seeks to be â€Å"out of view and out of earshot† in order to lend her work a voice of truth and trustworthiness. Fast Facts: Jenny Holzer Occupation: ArtistBorn:  July 29, 1950 in Gallipolis, OhioEducation: Duke University (no degree), University of Chicago (no degree), Ohio University (BFA), Rhode Island School of Design (MFA)Selected Works: Truisms (1977–79), Inflammatory Essays (1979–1982)Key Accomplishments: Golden Lion for Best Pavilion at the Venice Biennale (1990); member of the American Academy of Arts and LettersSpouse:  Mike Glier (m. 1983) Early Life and Education Jenny Holzer was born in Gallipolis, Ohio, where she grew up the oldest of three children. Her mother was an active participant in the community and her father was a car salesman. Holzer’s upbringing was rooted in Midwestern traditionalism, an attitude from which she believes the frankness in her art derives. â€Å"They want to get things done so they do it in the most expeditious way,† she has said of her fellow Midwesterners. â€Å"Expeditious as in fast and right.† It is perhaps for this reason that  her work is so often reproduced, as its split second appeal is derived from its keen ability to distill truths about our culture into digestible phrases. As a teenager, Holzer moved to Florida to attend Pine Crest Preparatory in Boca Raton before enrolling at Duke University for college. Holzer’s next few years were itinerant, seeing her leave Duke to enroll at the University of Chicago and then at Ohio University in Athens, where she received her BFA in Painting and Printmaking. Holzer would go on to receive her MFA from the Rhode Island School of Design in Providence. She married fellow RISD student Mike Glier in 1983 and had her daughter Lili in 1988. Early Artwork Holzer did not arrive at using text as the base of her artistic career without a few detours along the way. She began her life as an artist as an abstract painter, inspired by many of the great painters of Abstract Expressionism. By her own admission, she was only a decent third generation American abstract painter, as she felt that there was a more relevant way to communicate the fast-paced media culture that was on the rise in the late 70s and early 80s. Motivated by the conviction that her work ought to include discernible content (rather than the formal content of abstraction), but feeling the genre of social realism to be increasingly of the past, Holzer began placing words in her work, often in the form of found objects such as scraps of newspaper and other clippings. It was at this point that she began placing her work in public spaces to test their effect on passers-by. The realization that art could engage people who did not intend to see it, moving them to think or even provoking them to argue, motivated her to pursue text-based work. Truisms and Inflammatory Essays In her last year as an MFA student at RISD, Holzer rethought the inclusion of words in her work by using her own. She wrote a selection of one liners which were meant to distill truths encountered almost daily in Western civilization, which she then assembled into a series of posters. Though the phrasing of these posters was original, she sought to tap into universal sentiments that would seem familiar as ideas. â€Å"I want them to be accessible,† she said, â€Å"but not so easy that you throw them away after a second or two. Among these statements are phrases like â€Å"ABUSE OF POWER COMES AS NO SURPRISE,† â€Å"PROTECT ME FROM WHAT I WANT,† and â€Å"MONEY MAKES TASTE.† The Truisms, as they are known, have been posted in various locations throughout the world and have been translated into several languages. From Holzers Survivor Series.   Getty Images Thinking the Truisms too bland, Holzer began a series of political works also printed on posters in capital letters, which she called the Inflammatory Essays. With the allotment of a paragraph per poster, Holzer was able to dive into more complex ideas and explore more controversial topics. Art, Technology, and Public Space Holzer’s work has always been intertwined with technology, and in 1992 she began using LED signs for a project commissioned by the Public Art Fund for Times Square. Enthralled by their ability to display text in motion, she continued using the signs as they lent her words a neutral authority that the posters could not, as posters carried with them the connotation of anarchist protests. Since 1996, Holzer has worked with light based projections as installations, using the facades of monumental buildings as the canvas onto which she projects scrolling text. Holzer’s use of the institution as the base upon which her work rests has been the inspiration for numerous political protests since Holzer developed the method. Though Holzer’s work is largely concerned with text, its visual expression is a key element of her work. From the deliberate eye catching colors of the Inflammatory Essays laid out in grids to the speed and font of her scrolling texts, Holzer is a visual artist who has found her voice in words, an artistic medium she found best expressed her views on the culture of media in which she came of age. The material of these signs- whether they be LED lights of the carved stone of her Sarcophagi series- is equally as important as their verbal content. Jenny Holzers light projections on the faà §ade of 30 Rockefeller Plaza.   Getty Images Holzer’s work centers around text and its placement in public spaces. Using billboards, jumbotrons, lighted signs, and walls, Holzer uses city streets and areas of public interaction as her canvas. She is interested in the ability of public art to provoke a reaction and perhaps start a conversation. Not all Holzer’s work is staged outdoors, and when she does exhibit in gallery spaces, she is equally deliberate with their curation as she is when planning work publicly. As she is conscious of the museum goers slowed pace, she takes the opportunity to construct more complex interactions among her works, often juxtaposing different mediums. Reception and Legacy Holzer’s work has been presented in countless exhibitions and retrospectives across the world. She has won numerous prizes, including the Golden Lion for Best Pavilion at the 1990 Venice Biennale (where she represented the United States), and has been honored by the French Government with a diploma of Chevalier from the Order of Arts and Letters. In 2018, she was selected as a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters, one of 250 living members. Sources Art 21 (2009). Jenny Holzer: Writing Difficulty. [video] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?vCxrxnPLmqEsKort, C. and Sonneborn, L. (2002).  A to Z of American Women in the Visual Arts. New York: Facts on File, Inc. 98-100.Waldman, D. Jenny Holzer. (1989). New York: The Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation in association with Henry N. Abrams.Tate (2018). Jenny Holzers Inflammatory Essays: Why I Love. [video] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?vONIUXi84YCc

Information on Arizona Education and Schools

Information on Arizona Education and Schools When it comes to education and schools, each state takes its own unique approach. For the most part, state governments and local school boards develop educational policy and mandates that shape education and schools within state and local boundaries. Though there is some Federal oversight, most highly debated education regulations are shaped more closely to home. Trending educational topics such as charter schools, standardized testing, school vouchers, teacher evaluations, and state adopted standards typically align with the controlling political parties philosophy. These differences have made it difficult to compare education and schools between states accurately.   They also ensure that a student living in a particular state will be receiving at least a somewhat different education that a like student in a surrounding state. There are many data points that can be used to compare education and schools among states. Though it is a difficult endeavor, you can begin to see differences in educational quality by looking at shared data in regards to education and schools among all states. This profile of education and schools focuses on the state of Arizona. Arizona Education and Schools Arizona State Department of Education Arizona State Superintendent of Schools:  Diane Douglas District/School Information Length of School Year: A minimum of 180 school days is required by Arizona state law. Number of Public School Districts: There are 227 public school districts in Arizona. **** Number of Public Schools: There are 2421 public schools in Arizona. **** Number of Students Served in Public Schools: There are 1,080,319 public school students in Arizona. **** Number of Teachers in Public Schools: There are 50,800 public school teachers in Arizona.**** Number of Charter Schools: There are 567 charter schools in Arizona. Per Pupil Spending: Arizona spends $7,737 per pupil in public education. **** Average Class Size: The average class size In Arizona is 21.2 students per 1 teacher. **** % of Title I Schools: 95.6% of schools in Arizona are Title I Schools.**** % With Individualized Education Programs (IEP): 11.7% of students in Arizona are on IEPs. **** % in Limited-English Proficiency Programs: 7.0% of students in Arizona are in limited-English Proficient Programs.**** % of Student Eligible for Free/Reduced Lunches: 47.4% of student in Arizona schools are eligible for free/reduced lunches.**** Ethnic/Racial Student Breakdown**** White: 42.1% Black: 5.3% Hispanic: 42.8% Asian: 2.7% Pacific Islander: 0.2% American Indian/Alaskan Native: 5.0% School Assessment Data Graduation Rate: 74.7% of all students entering high school in Arizona graduate. ** Average ACT/SAT score: Average ACT Composite Score: 19.9*** Average Combined SAT Score: 1552***** 8th-grade NAEP assessment scores:**** Math: 283 is the scaled score for 8th-grade students in Arizona. The U.S. average was 281. Reading: 263 is the scaled score for 8th-grade students in Arizona. The U.S. average was 264. % of Students Who Attend College after High School: 57.9% of students in Arizona go on to attend some level of college. *** Private Schools Number of Private Schools: There are 328 private schools in Arizona.* Number of Students Served in Private Schools: There are 54,084 private school students in Arizona.* Homeschooling Number of Students Served Through Homeschooling: There were an estimated 33,965 students that were homeschooled in Arizona in 2015.# Teacher Pay The average teacher pay for the state of Arizona was $49,885 in 2013.## Each individual district in the state of Arizona negotiates teacher salaries and establishes their own teacher salary schedule. The following is an example of a teacher salary schedule in Arizona provided by the Dyzart Unified School District. *Data courtesy of Education Bug. **Data courtesy of ED.gov ***Data courtesy of PrepScholar. ****Data courtesy of the National Center for Education Statistics ******Data courtesy of The Commonwealth Foundation #Data courtesy of A2ZHomeschooling.com ##Average salary courtesy of National Center of Education Statistics ###Disclaimer:   The information provided on this page changes frequently.   It will be updated regularly as new information and data become available.

Tesla (electrocar) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Tesla (electrocar) - Essay Example The use of electric cars is increasing in all economies in the current epoch. A battery stored electrical energy or electric motor helps to run the contemporary electric cars manufactured by Tesla Motors. The modern electric cars produced by Tesla comprises of efficient electric motors that facilitates in generating torque. Torque helps to generate smooth and strong acceleration to such cars. The Tesla electric cars are considered to be the safest cars in the automobile market. There are many car models of Tesla:- Model S: a 7 seating electric car generating no emissions. 265MI EPA range of certification. 4.2 sec, 0-60 (acceleration). Model X: comprising of a dual motor, one of the motors is well equipped to work well in all road and climatic conditions, generating a torque of 50%. 5 sec, 0-60 (acceleration). It has a 60 or 85 kWh powered battery. The model uses does not uses any gasoline. The firm has planned for its new designed electric car, Model X Design Prototype, the car would be launched for sale from 2014 and its price would be that of Model S. All the products of Tesla are eco friendly and unique in style (Teslamotors, 2013). Other Large Competitors. Vehicule Electriques Pininfarina Bollore, BYD Auto, Nissan and Renault are four giant automobile companies that have launched excellent models of electric cars. Such cars symbolize class, status and environmental consciousness of the users. SIC Codes. The Standard Industrial Classification Code (SIC) of the automobile industry in United State is 37111. Trade Magazines and Labor Unions. The automobile firms like Tesla require large number of laborers for its manufacturing, operational, marketing and retail outlets. Several trade magazines have talked about the good virtues of the automobile industry facilitating high employment generation. However, it should also be considered that when the number of employees in an industry is high, the bargaining power of the workers rises. Labor union leaders ensure int erests of the employers in the workplaces. It has been empirically observed that the strong labor unions of the automobile market in U.S. have compromised the competitive powers of the companies in the global market. In the last thirty years it has been found that the labor union leaders have forced American firms to increase the level of trade barriers. Labor unions have made U.S. automobile companies lose their market shares to the foreign rivals. The labor unions demand for high wages from the companies. Delphi pays $76/hr to its workers. It is estimated that in every car sales of a company in U.S., the labor union achieves a benefit of $2000. Sometimes the big automobile companies like Ford have ceased some of its operating plants for pricy labor costs (Teslamotors, 2013). Figure 1: U.S. Auto Labor Markets (Source: Author’s Creation) The above graph shows the U.S. auto market, high intervened wages rates set by the labor unions reduce the quantity of car produces and incr eases the cost prices. It generates a deadweight loss into the industry. Imports and Exports. Despite of the disturbances of labor unions, U.S. auto industry enumerated a surplus trade balance from 2010 to 2011. The aggregate imports and exports of cars across the world on average in U.S. have increased. The percentage change in imports is 12.4% and percentage change in exports is 17.9%. On total, aggregate sales have increased and have changed by 7%. However, when regional disparities are

Human resources planning Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Human resources planning - Assignment Example The factors that influence the demand for products and services, as well as skills competencies are put into consideration and how these factors may continue to influence demand. The company’s supply chain boosts for lower inventories, smoother production plans, reduced stock-outs, and improved customer service as a result of better forecasting techniques. The supply technique adopted by the organization is effectively done to ensure that production is done for the right quantities and the right time. For this reason, the suppliers of YWCA Niagara have always strived to find ways to match demand and supply in order to achieve optimal levels of cost, customer service, and quality that guarantees a competitive advantage with other suppliers, especially in the HR market (Armstrong, 2007). The YWCA Niagara supply chain is designed in such a way that problems that affect delivery may have ramifications throughout the chain. Demand and supply in the human resource department are done by reviewing the data available in the HR audit and projections made for future HR demand and supply. The internal labor force in the organization may be affected by temporary factors such as leaves and permanent factors such as deaths. One of the  core  methods used by the company to forecast the future HR supply is trend analysis. The method is based on the assumption that past ratios and trends in the movement of employees is stable and is a reliable indicator of the future trends and the necessary ratios of employee movement (Belcourt, & Belcourt, 2012). The company makes use of the information collected in HR audit and employment data analysis to identify the labor patterns. The examination of past trends enables the HR department to predict the effect of similar activities in the future of the organization since the HR department makes the assumption that the factors will remain stable and unchanged. Although trend analysis is not

Functional Assessments and Intervention Strategies Essay Example for Free

Functional Assessments and Intervention Strategies Essay Dewolfe (1997) discusses the relevant points on the book written by Reichle and Wacker (1997) about the effective approaches in terms of assessing challenging behaviors; and what are the intervention strategies that could be employed in order to decrease the risks for the development of a challenging behavior. According to Reichle and Wacker (1997), the most effective venue for the assessment of challenging behavior could be conducted in natural environments such as home, school and local community (para 2). Also, another key factor that must be kept in mind with regards to changing childrens challenging behavior is the idea that when one wants to change a behavior of a particular child, it necessarily follows, that the behavior of those people around her should also be changed. Effective interventions are also very relevant most specially the rate, quality and the effort that is given on the reinforcement (para 3). Reichle and Wacker (1997) also emphasized that Communications Based Interventions are the best approach in terms of dealing with challenging behavior (para 4). Such a type of intervention should be followed by a functional assessment that should be able to understand the child very well. In effect of this, what will one have is a communication based approach that perfectly matches the need of the child. The facilitation of an intervention program has been emphasized by Reichle and Wacker (1997) has to be conducted in natural settings. As such, the traditional notion that interventions should be normally done in clinics are no longer that patronized. Discussion The rate in which challenging behavior has been increasing now a days is understandable. On the advent of the 21st century where everything is in set to be in fast paced, most parents tend to forgot their responsibility to their children. On the first part of this paper, the author was able to enumerate the different causes and various risk factors of challenging behavior. In a nutshell, one could see that majority of the causes stem out because the mother fails to take care of her child during the prenatal stage and even during the early years of the child. Fox, Dunlap and Powell (2002) emphasized the necessity of early intervention during childhood in order to prevent the development of challenging behavior. In addition with this, the perception that problematic behaviors among toddlers and preschool-age children should not be dismissed as mere effects of his or her development stage. Rather, parents should be vigilant to see the patterns and the rate in which challenging behaviors occur and significantly think of a plan in order to address such a problem. The case of June is a good example on how a child develops challenging behavior during her life. June is perceived to be raised in a broken family. It could be implied that the source of family income is solely shouldered by her mother, hence leaving her and her siblings with small amount of time. In addition with this, the fact that June has two other siblings that her mother have to take care and worry about, further decreases the chance that June could be given appropriate attention and guidance. It is clear from the history of June and her other siblings that they somehow share the same patterns of behavior. Although the author could not completely distinguish if such is the result of how they are reared or maybe how did their mother take care of herself during pregnancy; but it could be seen that such a pattern of behavior is clearly evident to be existing within her family circle. The manner in which June was assessed, intervened and treated in her school could be seen as one of the most effective steps in which one could deal with challenging behavior. The team used a Communications Based Intervention (Reichle and Wacker (1997) in order to deal with the problem. One could recall that the manner in which the teacher talked to June allowed her to express her feelings and also allowed her to tell stories that upset her within the family and also within the school. In addition with this, the assessments that were made to June are done in a natural environment, such as her school. It could be recalled that various attempts are also made by Junes residential and community program placements, but such proves to be null. As such, the author perceived that the assessment at the school, wherein June spends mostly her time is a very effective approach because not only that she will be able to properly relate with her peers, such an approach will also pave the way for more understanding and willingness to support among her teachers. Reicle and Wacker (1997) emphasized the need of other people to also change their behaviors if they wanted to help a child with challenging behavior. It could be significantly noted that Laursen (2005) claimed that the team that is taking care and assisting June has also made an effort to make her educators understand the depth of her problem and how their support could help her to overcome her challenging behavior. In relation with this, the author wanted to introduce the notion of Positive Behavior Support (PBS) of Fox, Dunlap and Powell (2002) in order to change challenging behaviors among children. The PBS is tailored to meet the specific needs of the child and also takes into careful consideration all of the contexts in which problems with regard to challenging behaviors emerge. The model devised by Dunlap and Fox (1999) as cited from Fox, Dunlap and Powell (2002) creates an Individualized Support Program (ISP) that seeks to help the family and the childs care givers in order to change his or her difficult behavior. The ISP model revolves on two major steps which is the functional assessment and the person centered planning. The functional assessment focuses on accumulating detailed information about the childs behavior, activities, and other contexts that could be helpful for the family, taking into consideration the cause and effects of a particular behavior. Consequently, the person-centered planning centers on the expression of the childs dreams and other challenges that the child perceived to have within his or her family. After such, a behavior support plan will be created which is perfectly in accordance to the specific needs of the child.

Advocating The Death Penalty :: essays research papers fc

Advocating the Death Penalty Thousands of people will attack the death penalty. They will give emotional speeches about the one innocent man or woman who might accidentally get an execution sentence. However, all of these people are forgetting one crucial element. They are forgetting the thousands of victims who die every year by the hands of heartless murderers. There are more murderers out there than people who are wrongly convicted, and that is what we must remember. I, as well as many others, have total confidence in the death penalty. It is a very beneficial component of our justice system. The death penalty saves lives. It saves lives because it stops those who murder from ever murdering again. It also deters potential murderers from ever committing the crime. Unfortunately, the death penalty is currently used so rarely that it isn’t nearly as effective as it could be. In order for it to work, we must put it into practice more often. In recent years, crime in America has been on the rise, in particular, violent crime. This has led not only to an overcrowding of prisons in our country, but also to an increase in the number of death sentences handed down by the courts. Despite the fact that the number of inmates on death row is climbing, the number of death sentences actually carried out in any given year lags far behind. People simply aren’t fearful of the death penalty when it isn’t used the way it should be (Stewart 50). If the death penalty has been declared legal, then the federal and state governments must employ it to its fullest as a means of stopping previous murderers from recommitting their crimes. Since most of the prisoners on death row are there for murder, executing them would ensure that they would never kill again. Obsessive murderers, who know no alternative to killing, need to be executed to protect both prison guards and society. This view is perhaps best illustrated through the words of Judge Alfred J. Talley of New York who explained â€Å"If I as an individual have the right to kill in self defense, why has not the state, which is nothing more than an aggregation of individuals, the same right to defend itself against unjust aggression and unjust attack?† (Kaplan 28) About two and a half years ago, my dear cousin, Jaime, became the first victim of a serial killer named Brian Duffy.

Dehumanization of the Jews Essay

Dehumanization is the process of making a person less human by taking away the important things in their life and what makes them who they are; not only the material things but their ideas and morals as well. The Nazi’s dehumanized millions and millions of Jews during the Holocaust. In Elie Wiesel’s recollection of his experience in the German’s concentration camps, he explained how brutal the Nazi’s could be, how they could take a person’s life away in the matter of seconds, and how they change a person’s outlook on life entirely. The Jews were dehumanized from the very beginning of the Holocaust and only grew to be worse. Dehumanization is the process of making a person less human by taking away the important things in their life and what makes them who they are; not only the material things but their ideas and morals as well. The Nazi’s dehumanized millions and millions of Jews during the Holocaust. In Elie Wiesel’s recollection of his experience in the German’s concentration camps, he explained how brutal the Nazi’s could be, how they could take a person’s life away in the matter of seconds, and how they change a person’s outlook on life entirely. The Jews were dehumanized from the very beginning of the Holocaust and only grew to be worse. The Nazi’s didn’t make anything easy for them. The Jews endured a continuous struggle that they could do nothing about. In the beginning, it all started with the German’s forcing them out of their homes and sending them to the ghettos. The Nazi’s stripped them of their rights, took away their belongings, and removed them from their daily lives. This left them with nothing. They left behind their lives. â€Å"To live? I don’t attach any importance to my life any more. I’m alone,† states an early deportee, Moshe the Beadle. (pg. 5) The Jews were ridded of all sense of security. Once they arrived at the concentration camps, they were struck with another loss of â€Å"themselves. † At the camp, they received tattoos. These tattoos were a series of numbers which represented â€Å"who† they were in the concentration camps. They were known as numbers, not people, numbers. A name is sacred. A name is who you are, without it, you’re only a being. They were people with friends and family that knew them by this name, their name. It was just another way to break away the ties of humanity. In the camps, the prisoners were treated like animals. They had to work all day long. They had to eat when they were told to eat. They had do everything they were told. If anyone misbehaved they would be shot down like dogs. Wiesel asks, â€Å"Was there a single place here where you were not in danger of death? † (pg. 37) A human is meant to be free, do as they please, and not live life in fear. The Jews weren’t allowed to have these luxuries anymore. They were worn down to nothing, which is exactly what Hitler was trying to do. Dehumanization was carried on throughout the Holocaust. The Nazi’s wanted the Jews gone. They made them flee their homes and their personal lives. They were left with nothing. They were given numbers in replace of their own name, the name that makes them the person they grew up as. They Jewish prisoners were treated like animals. They worked, hardly ate, hardly slept, and worked some more. If someone was to do the slightest thing wrong, they were shot down. The person they used to be is gone. The Jewish weren’t given a chance to fight for their lives. The Nazi’s made this impossible. They had to hold onto the little bit of hope left in their wounded hearts.

Judicial Law-Making Essay

The independence of the judiciary was ensured by the act of settlement 1700, which transferred the power to sack judges from the crown to the parliament. Consequently, judges should theoretically make their decisions based purely on the logical deductions of precedent, uninfluenced by political or career considerations. The eighteenth century legal commentator, William Blackstone, introduced the declaratory theory of law, stating that judges do not make law, but merely, by the rules of precedence, discover and declare the law that has always been: ‘the judge being sworn to determine, not according to his private sentiments†¦ ot according to his own private judgement, but according to the known laws and customs of the land: not delegated to pronounce a new law, but to maintain an expound the old one’. Blackstone does not accept that precedent does not even offer a choice between two or more interpretations of the law: where a bad decision is made, he states, the new one that reverses or overrules it is not a new law, nor a statement that the old decision was bad law, but a declaration that the previous decision was â€Å"not law†, in other words that it was the wrong answer. His view presupposes that there is always one right answer, to be deduced from the objective study of precedence. Today, however, this position is considered somewhat unrealistic. If the operation of precedent is the precise science Blackstone suggested, a large majority of cases in the higher courts would never come to court at all. The lawyer’s concern could simply look up the relevant case law and predict what the decision would be, then advise whichever of the clients would be bound to lose not to bother bringing or fighting the case. In a civil case, or any appeal case, no good lawyer would advise a client to bring or defend the case that they had no chance of winning. Therefore, where such a case is contested, it can be assumed that, unless one of the lawyers has made a mistake, it could go either way, and still be in accordance with the law. In practice, thus, judges’ decisions may not be as neutral as Blackstone’s declaratory theory suggests: they have to make choices which are by no means spelled out by precedent. Yet, rather than openly stating that they are choosing between two or more equally relevant precedents, the courts find ways to avoid awkward ones, which give them the impression that the precedents they do choose to follow are the only ones they could possibly apply. Ronald Dworkin argues that judges have no real discretion in making case law. He sees law as a seamless web of principles, which supply a right answer – and only one – to every possible problem. Dworkin reasons that although stated legal rules may â€Å"run out† (in the sense of not being directly applicable to a new case) legal principles never do, and therefore judges never need to use their own discretion. In his book, ‘laws’ empire 1986†², professor Dworkin claims that judges first look at previous cases, and from those deduce which principles could be said to apply to the case for them. They then consult their own sense of justice as to which apply, and also consider what the communities’ view of justice dictates. Where the judges’ view and that of the community coincide, there is no problem, but if they conflict, the judges then ask themselves whether or not it would be fair to impose their own sense of justice over that of the community. Dworkin calls this the interpretive approach and, although it may appear to involve a series of choices, he considers that the legal principles underlying the decisions mean that in the end, only one result could possibly surface from any one case. Dworkin’s approach has been heavily criticised as being unrealistic: opponents believe that judges do not consider principles of justice but take a much more pragmatic approach, looking at the facts of the case, not the principles. Critical legal theorists, like as David Kairys (1998) take a quite different view. They argue that judges have considerable freedom within the doctrine of precedent. Kairys suggests that there is no such thing as legal reasoning in the sense of a logical, neutral method of determining rules and results from what has gone before. He states that judicial decisions are actually based on a ‘complex mixture of social, political, institutional, experiential, and personal factors’, and are simply legitimated, or justified, by reference to previous cases. The law provides a ‘wide and conflicting variety’ of such justifications ‘from which courts pick and choose’. The process is not necessarily as cynical as it sounds. Kairys points out that he is not saying that judges actually make the decision and then consider which precedents they can pick to justify it: rather their own eliefs and prejudices naturally lead them to give more weight to precedents which support both views. Nevertheless, for critical legal theorists, all such decisions can be seen as reflecting social and political judgements, rather than objective, purely logical deductions. Critical theory argues that the neutral appearance of so called ‘legal reasoning’ disguises the true nature of legal decisions which, by the choices made, uphold existing power relations within society, tending to favour, for example, employers over employees, property owners over those without, men over women, and rich, developed countries over poor, undeveloped ones. Griffith (1997) argues that judges make their decisions based on what they see as the public interest, but that their view of this interest is coloured by their background and their position in society. He points out that judges’ view of public interest assumes that the interests of all the members of society are roughly the same, ignoring the fact that within society, different groups, employers and employees, men and women, rich and poor – may have interests which are diametrically opposite. What appears to be acting in public interest will usually mean in the interest of one group over another, and therefore cannot be seen as neutral. Waldron, in his book ‘The Law’ (1989), agrees that judges do make law, and that they are influenced in those instances of law-making by political and ideological considerations, but argues that this is not necessarily a bad thing. He contends that while it would be wrong for judges to be biased towards one side in a case, or to make decisions based on political factors in the hope of promotion, it is unrealistic to expect a judge to be ‘a political neuter – emasculated of all values and principled commitments’. Although judges have traditionally seen themselves as declaring or finding rather than creating law, and frequently state that making law is the prerogative of the parliament, there are several areas in which they clearly do make law. In the first place, historically, a great deal of English law is and always has been case law, made by judicial decisions. Contract and tort law are still largely judge made, and many of the most important developments – for example, the development of negligence as a tort – have had profound effects. Even though statutes have later been passed in these subjects, and occasionally parliament has attempted to embody whole areas of common law in statutory form, these still embody the original principles created by the judges. Secondly, the application of law, whether case law or statute, to a particular case is not usually an automatic matter. Terminology may be vague or ambiguous, new developments and social life have to be accommodated, and the procedure requires interpretation as well as application. As we have suggested, judicial precedent does not always make a particular decision obvious and obligatory – there may be conflicting precedents, their implications may be unclear, and there are ways of getting round a precedent that may otherwise produce an undesirable decision. If it is accepted that Blackstone’s declaratory theory does not apply in practice, then clearly the judges do make law, rather than explaining the law that is already there. The theories advanced by Kairys, Griffith, and Waldron, all accept that judges do have discretion, and therefore they do to some extent make law. Where precedents do not spell out what should be done in a case before them, judges nevertheless have to make a decision. They cannot simply say that the law is not clear and refer it back to parliament, even though in some cases they point out that the decision before them would be more appropriately decided by those who have been elected to make decisions on changes in the law. This was the case in Airedale NHS Trust v Bland (1993), where the House of Lords considered the fate of Tony Bland, the football supporter left in a coma, after the Hillsborough stadium disaster. The court had to decide whether it was lawful to stop supplying the drugs and artificial feeding that were keeping Bland alive, even though it was known that doing so would mean his death soon afterwards. Several law lords made it plain that they felt that cases raising ‘wholly new moral and social issues; should be decided by the Parliament, the judges’ role being to ‘apply the principles which society, through the democratic process, adopts, not to impose their standards on society. Nevertheless, the courts had no option but to make the decision one way or another, and they decided that the action was lawful in the circumstances, because it was in the patient’s best interests. Thirdly, our judges have been left to define their own role, and the role of the courts generally in the political system, more or less as they please. They have, for example, given themselves the power to review decisions of any public body, even when parliament has said those decis ions are not to be reviewed. In addition, despite their frequent pronouncements that it is not for them to interfere in parliament’s law making role, the judges have made it plain that they will not, unless forced by very explicit wording, interpret statutes as encroaching on common law rights or judge made law. They also control the operation of case law without reference to parliament : an obvious example is that the 1966 practice statement announcing that the HOL would no longer be bound by its own decisions, which made case law more flexible and thereby gave the judges more power, was made on the courts own authority, without needing permission from parliament. The HOL has explained its approach to judicial law-making (which is likely to be the same for the Supreme Court) in the case of C (a minor) v DPP 1995, which raised the issue of children’s liability for crime. The common law defence of doli incapax provided that a D aged between 10 and 14 could be liable for a crime only if the prosecution could prove that the child knew that what he or she did was seriously wrong. On appeal from the magistrates’ court, the divisional court held that the defence was outdated and should no longer exist in law. An appeal was brought before the HOL arguing that the divisional court was bound by precedent and not able to change the law in this way. the HOL agreed and went on to consider whether it should change the law itself (as the 1966 practice statement clearly allowed it to do), but decided that this was not an appropriate case for judicial law making.

Women and Education essays

Women and Education essays Women and Education: Granting women and men equal access to education in light of the Fourteenth Amendments pledge of equal protection. Though taken for granted by many, co-sex educational institutions for higher learning are really just recent occurrences. For the most part, colleges and universities, particularly elite ones, taught either men or women. The reasons for this separation date back to early American history, when a womans place was seen as in the home. In addition, education was seen, though ridiculously, as having detrimental effects on the woman. Some of these ludicrous, yet back then scientific beliefs, included that womens brains were smaller than mens were therefore, making them less capable of academic learning. It was also said that if women utilized their brains at the time of their adolescent years, then their reproductive organs would not develop correctly causing possible sterility. Motherhood has always been seen as a strong link for women to their personal identities. Therefore, the greatest oppression would be to threaten its existence. Having to be a mother is a role traditionally defined by society for women; Most women long for children, even against considerable odds, even when marriage has become a light-minded undertaking, and in direst poverty; women continue to seek to be mothers. This is just one of the avenues that was taken advantage of in order to continue the intolerable oppression of preventing women from educating themselves and enlightening their lives. Women have had to prove that they are equals of men. They have had to prove that they are as intelligent, competent, brave, and as morally responsible. With this incentive Womens Liberation was born and with it women were secured many rights, among them are: the right to vote, to educate themselves, and to have and spend their own money and properties...

Analog vs. Digital

Analog vs. Digital Analog vs. Digital Analog vs. Digital By Mark Nichol What’s the difference between analog and digital, and why is the latter word, which originally referred to fingers, now the antithesis of â€Å"hands-on†? An analog is something related to physical quantities (hence the name; analog comes from a Greek word meaning â€Å"proportion†): An analog clock, for example, shows the passage of time by measuring it with a â€Å"hand† that pivots on a central axis, while a measuring tape represents the length of a tangible phenomenon such as a room’s dimensions. By contrast, digital refers to a device’s reading of binary units, zeros and ones, to perform functions and to the storage of information as binary units rather than an analog recording medium such as magnetic ribbon. Ironically, however, digit stems from the Latin term digitus, meaning â€Å"finger† or â€Å"toe.† The path from appendages to algorithms involves the use of fingers to count, thus the extension of the definition of digit to â€Å"number below ten.† The use of zeros and tens as the basis of the on-off duality of binary computer systems led the technology to be referred to as digital technology. Indeed, the word bit, referring to the basic unit of digital information, is a contraction of the phrase â€Å"binary digit.† The adjective digital now refers both to something done or having to do with fingers (for example, â€Å"digital manipulation†) and something related to digitally rendered numbers, or to computerized data or to electronics. Two other terms with the same root word are digitalis, referring to a plant popularly known as the foxglove and to a medicine extracted from it, and prestidigitation, a sesquipedalian synonym for magic. Digitalis is a Latinized form of the German word fingerhut (â€Å"thimble†), because of the resemblance of the plant’s flowers to the sewing implement. Prestidigitation, meanwhile, is another Latin-looking invention influenced by prestige, which comes from the Latin word praestigiae, â€Å"juggler’s tricks.† (Prestige acquired a laudatory meaning and connotation only in the early twentieth century.) It’s a combination of the Italian word presto and digit hence, â€Å"quick fingers.† Analog, meanwhile, calls to mind its full-form predecessor analogue (which spelling for the adjectival form is also preferred in British English), which means â€Å"something similar.† An analogy is also a similarity, or it can refer to a correspondence or to another form of comparison. Analogous is the adjectival form. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:25 Subordinating ConjunctionsDifference between "Pressing" and "Ironing"Wood vs. Wooden

Motivation Bhutanese Employees in the Hotel Industry Case Study

Motivation Bhutanese Employees in the Hotel Industry - Case Study Example To lose such an employee at any stage of the production process is suicidal for the organisation. Specific emphasis is therefore taken into account to make sure that such employees are kept for as long as they are required. The hotel industry is very challenging in nature. Research indicates that for employees in this sector to perform their best, they need to be highly motivated. (Armstrong, 2006) There are various factors that motivate Bhutanese employees to be productive in the hotel industry. They include financial rewards that are given to these employees who are in the hotel industry. This includes hospital insurance, annual leave etc. All these have played a great role in motivating the Bhutanese employees. Due to these factors, Bhutanese employees in the hotel industry have been greatly motivated. Workers need to be compensated for their performance in order to encourage them to keep up or improve on that performance. The moment the human resource establishes the performance of the worker, managers should reward to commensurate with the worker's achievement. These will ensure maximum production and effectiveness of the worker; current compensation programs that motivate Bhutanese employees in the hotel industry include mix of basic pay, equities and variable pay. (Beardwell, 1997) Among the factors that have motivated frontline Bhutanese employees to be productive in the hotel industry is good working environment. The employers in this industry have ensured that Bhutanese employees get good working environment. This is through ensuring that all the required facilities are available. The employers have ensured that the frontline Bhutanese employees have protective clothing when working. The employers have ensured that there is a good working environment for the frontline Bhutanese employees in hotel industry. (Cole, 1995) Human capital need to be motivated in order for the company to get the best out of them. An employee who is well motivated will easily stay in the organization and be more productive. For this to occur human resource have to attend to the financial and psychological needs of the workers by rewarding them well. Basic financial remunerations and working conditions are normally stated by the government or workers union. (Geen, 1995) There are various types of reward systems that are used in organizations. They may be as

Linguistic features that distinguish regional and social varieties of Essay

Linguistic features that distinguish regional and social varieties of English - Essay Example These variations constitute the dialects of the people. Many factors have influenced to develop a standard form of language in all major speech communities. These in turn have been used as the official dialects of the communities. (The Columbia electronic encyclopedia,2006) The official dialect usually differs from the day to day language, it has some "officiality" in it which would contain certain standards of grammar, pronunciations etc. The standard English of England is derived from London English. A person is marked as cultivated in the United states which entails usage of standard grammar and pronunciation. Also the degree of politeness of a person is judged by the efficiency with which he or she speaks the standard language. Sometimes ordinary speech can be affected by the standard language. Hence some usages would tend to be incorrect such as "you was" in place of "you were" etc. Similarly "gotten" is accepted in United States but not in England. Similarly "Gotten" is accepted by the United States but not in England. Also the standard of linguistic variations are mainly because of vocabulary. Language changes have traditionally been treated as processes constrained by internal linguistic factors. According to this view, language contacts have b een perceived as disturbing factors. Therefore, explaining language change requires new analytical ways of modelling contact, in which both internal and external factors are closely investigated. Studying language-internal processes requires a fundamental knowledge of sociolinguistic, textual and regional factors, since all variation-based analytical and explanatory models of language change rely on the idea of a combined effect of all factors. Another important insight is to be able to connect the latest language changes with historical ones. Hence, the concept of grammaticalization offers a productive starting point for analyses of language changes that span several hundred years. Linguistics Linguistics is the study of language on a scientific basis. Linguistics can be theoretical and applied. Linguistics compares languages (comparative linguistics) and explores their histories, in order to find universal properties of language and to account for its development and origins (historical linguistics). Slightly separate from general linguistics are the sub-fields of phonology, which studies the role of sounds in particular languages, and phonetics, the study of how sounds are produced and perceived. Linguistics are widely used to understand the variations of languages. Regional variation in English Everyone speaks some form of regional dialect a variety of a language that differs in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary from those spoken in other regions. In this sense, a region implies a construct of social and historical facts as well as a geographic area. The shared linguistic features that make up a regional dialect include historical facts of migration and community experience, social facts of ethnic identity, and geographic facts of climate and terrain. Each regional dialect also includes a number of social dialects that reflect the age, education, social class, and ethnic identity of its speakers. In England various dialects are spoken region wise like Scottish gaelic , Irish